Philosophical Influences of Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina on South Asian Thought

Abstract

Mohenjo-Daro, a UNESCO World Heritage city on the Indus plain, remains the most complete window into South Asia’s earliest urban experiment (ca. 2600–1900 BCE). Recent syntheses of excavation archives, renewed field sampling of architecture and drains, and laboratory analyses—from ceramic petrography and micro-remains to residue and isotopic studies—are reshaping core narratives. The city’s gridded plan and standardized fired-brick modules co-occur with sophisticated storm- and wastewater control, indicating municipal-level maintenance rather than ad-hoc solutions. Craft production was embedded in household clusters but linked through citywide exchange, as shown by bead workshop by-products, shell-working detritus, standardized weights, and seal use. Bioarchaeological signals suggest mixed subsistence (wheat–barley with millets and pulses), broad trade networks (lithics, marine shell), and adaptive strategies to hydro-geomorphic variability of the Indus. Script-bearing seals and sealings point to administrative recording without monumental palaces or royal tombs, challenging top-down state models. This article synthesizes archaeological, environmental, and materials-science evidence to present a holistic account of Mohenjo-Daro’s urban metabolism, governance, and decline, highlighting research gaps and proposing testable hypotheses for future work.